Common Name: Indian Almond

General Information

Terminalia catappa is a fast-growing deciduous or semi-evergreen tree, usually growing about 15 metres tall with specimens up to 40 metres recorded[, , ]. The canopy has a pagoda-like habit when young, but this becomes less noticeable as the tree ages and the branches elongate and droop at the tips[]. The bole can be straight or twisted, it is generally set with short woody spines, can be 100 - 150cm in diameter and is often buttressed at the base with buttresses up to 3 metres high[, , ].
An important, multi-purpose tree, providing food, medicines and a host of other commodities. This is one of the most common trees of many tropical coasts[]. It is widely cultivated in the tropics, as a shade tree, for ornament and for its edible seeds[, ]. It is often planted in avenues as a shade-tree, for which it is suitable because of its very regular shape[]. The seeds are sold in local markets and are considered to have a significant commercial potential to a wider market[]

Known Hazards

Various species of biting and stinging ants have been found inhabiting hollow twigs on this tree[].

Botanical References

, ,

Range

Africa - Maagascar; E. Asia - China, India, Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, New Guinea to Australia and the Pacific.

Habitat

A mid-canopy tree in areas just inland from ocean beaches, near river mouths, and on coastal plains. These areas are typically flat, but they may have dunes or rocky bluffs[, ]. Sandy or rocky beaches[].

Properties

Edibility Rating
Medicinal Rating
Other Uses Rating
Habit	Semi-deciduous Tree
Height	15.00 m
Growth Rate	Fast
Pollinators	Insects
Cultivation Status	Cultivated, Ornamental, Wild

Cultivation Details

Plants grow best in the lowland tropics at elevations below 800 metres[]. It grows best in areas where the mean maximum and minimum annual temperatures are within the range 21 - 32°c, though it can tolerate 10 - 36°c[]. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,500 - 3,400mm, though can tolerate from 700 - 4,200mm[].
Succeeds in any moderately fertile, well-drained soil in a sunny position[]. Prefers sands and loamy sands, though it also does well on silts, loam, and even clays if the drainage is good[]. Tolerates saline soils[]. Prefers soil that are neutral to moderately alkaline and rich in bases, however it will also grow in strongly acid soils[]. A particularly useful plant for coastal gardens, being tolerant of salt spray[, ]. Established plants are drought tolerant[]. Prefers a pH in the range 5 - 7, but tolerates 4.3 - 8[].
Plants are fast growing, often in excess of 1 metre a year when young[].
Trees can yield two crops a year in some areas, and in places have been known to exhibit more or less continuous fruiting[]. A tree may yield around 5 kg of kernels per year[].
There has been some selection in cultivating forms with larger seeds[].
The tree sheds its leaves all at once, quite suddenly, usually twice a year (January or February and
July or August). Unlike most tropical trees, the leaves turn first yellow, then vivid red before falling, giving a well-marked 'autumn colour'[].
The inconspicuous flowers have a sweet, delicate fragrance[].
Various species of biting and stinging ants have been found inhabiting hollow twigs on this tree[].

Edible Uses

Seed - raw or cooked[, ]. The almond-flavoured seeds can be eaten out of hand or roasted[]. They can be chopped and added to cookies, bread mixes, dessert fillings, sweets, soups and stews[]. The seed contains about 50% oil[]. The seed is 3 - 4 cm long, 3 - 5 mm thick and enclosed in a thick shell that is difficult to crack[, ]. The seeds are a rich source of zinc[].

The seeds yield 38 - 54% of a colourless, bland tasting yellow semi-drying oil that is used in cooking[, ]. Rather similar to almond oil, but less prone to become rancid[, , , ].

The fruits have a tender skin and a thin layer of subacid juicy flesh[]. It is often fibrous and not very tasty in spite of the pleasant smell[]. The sweetish, fibrous flesh is palatable when very young, and is usually liked by children[].

Medicinal

Various parts of the tree, such as the leaves and fruit, contain tannins and are astringent[, ].

The leaves, crushed with Dacrydium elatum and rhizomes of Cyperus rotundus, are combined to treat dysentery[].

The red leaves act as a vermifuge, while the sap of young leaves, cooked with oil from the kernel, is used to treat leprosy[]. The juice of the leaves is ingested for coughs[]. An infusion of the leaves is used to treat jaundice[]. The leaves are used to treat indigestion[]. The young leaves are used to cure headaches and colic[].
Externally, the leaves may be rubbed on breasts to cure pain or, when heated, may be applied to numb parts of the body[]. They may be used as a dressing for swollen rheumatic joints[]. The leaves, applied to the head and sides, are refreshing and sudorific[].

Leaves, bark and fruit are used to treat yaws[].

The bark and root bark are useful for bilious fever, diarrhoea, thrush, and as a remedy for sores and abscesses[, ]. The fluid from the bark is used to treat diabetes and as a tonic[]. An infusion of the bark is used to treat stomach ache and also as an emetic for infants[].
Externally, the bark is used to treat sores, pimples and fungal skin diseases[].

The kernel of the fruit mixed with beeswax stops putrid exudation and bloody faeces. It is recommended as a mild laxative and a galactagogue for women, but too frequent use causes diarrhoea[].

Agroforestry Uses:

The tree’s vast root system binds together both sands and poor soils. It has a heavy leaf fall and so is a good provider of mulch for the protection of the soil[]. It is a promising species for the reforestation of sandy areas[]. Planting the tree can help eradicate Imperata cylindrica and other unwanted aggressive grasses[].

Other Uses

The trunk is a source of gum[].

The oil from the seed is used for making soap, but its industrial use is limited by the difficulty in extracting the kernel[].

Bark, leaves, roots and fruit are all important sources of tannin with the astringent bark containing 9 - 23% tannin[, ]. The outer shell is also rich in tannin. It is used in leather preparation and as a base for inks; sometimes the roots and fruits are used for the same purposes[].
A black dye that is used to make ink is extracted from the bark and fruit[, ].
A yellow-green dye is obtained from the leaves[].

The trunk is a source of yellow and black dye[].
Wood chips soaked in water give a yellow colour[].
A black dye is obtained from the fruit[].

The heartwood varies from light to dark brown to reddish brown, and often with irregular darker and lighter belts; it is not clearly demarcated from the lighter coloured sapwood. The texture is fine to coarse, the grain crossed and often curly and twisted. The wood is moderately hard; moderately heavy; strong and pliable; somewhat durable, but very susceptible to termite damage. It seasons well and works easily. A good quality timber, it is used for cabinet wook, furniture and for the construction of buildings, boats, bridges, floors, panelling, boxes, crates, planks, carts, wheelbarrows, barrels and water troughs[, , , , , ].

Propagation

Seed - pre-soak for 24 hours in cold water[]. About 70% of ripe seed germinate in about 20 days[]. Seeds remain viable for a long time and germinate readily, even after floating in water for long distances[].

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