Common Name:

General Information

Flueggea virosa is a usually deciduous shrub or small tree with many erect or arching branches; it usually grows up to 4 metres tall, but exceptionally to 7 metres. It has numerous branches arising from the base and spirally arranged upwards[, ]. The plant can be deciduous in seasonal climates, but evergreen if there is a more regular supply of moisture[].
A multi-purpose plant with a wide range of medicinal and other uses. It is said to be one of the most important medicinal plants of the Sahel region, where it is commonly harvested from the wild. It is often cultivated in various parts of its range, both for its various useful purposes and also as an ornamental hedge, being valued for its bushy nature, attractive foliage and white waxy fruits[]. The plant is commonly spared when clearing land or at weeding operations[].
Flueggea virosa has a very wide distribution, large population, is not currently experiencing any major threats and no significant future threats have been identified. The plant is classified as 'Least Concern' in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species(2019)[].

Known Hazards

The plant contains various alkaloids[].
The alkaloid virosecurinine is mildly toxic to mice with an LD50 of 73 mg/kg body weight. Death results from violent tonic convulsions and paralysis similar to those observed with strychnine poisoning[].
The bark is astringent and is sometimes used as a fish-poison, although toxicity to fish appears to be low[]. Bark-extracts have shown some lethal toxicity to mice[]. Besides tannin and a dye stuff, two alkaloids, one of them flueggeine, have been detected at 0.4 - 0.6% concentration[].

Botanical References

Range

Through the drier parts of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula to the Indian subcontinent, China, southeast Asia to northern Australia.

Habitat

Forest edges and associated bushland, generally in higher rainfall areas, bushland and thicket, extending into dry areas along water courses, sometimes on termite mounds, rocky slopes and common in disturbed places, from sea level to 2,300 metres[].

Properties

Conservation Status	Least Concern
Edibility Rating
Medicinal Rating
Other Uses Rating
Habit	Semi-deciduous Tree
Height	4.00 m
Pollinators	Bees, Insects
Self-fertile	No
Cultivation Status	Cultivated, Ornamental, Wild

Cultivation Details

The plant is listed as an invasive species in Florida, United States[].
A fast growing, hardy shrub suitable for planting under various conditions[].
A dioecious species, both male and female forms need to be grown if fruit and seed are required[].

Edible Uses

The fruit is edible when mature enough to fall from the bush[, , ]. Juicy and sweet, though with a slighly bitter flavour[, ]. Mainly eaten by children[]. The small white berries are only 5mm in diameter[].

Medicinal

The plant is widely used in traditional medicine, being employed in the treatment of many different conditions. All parts of the plant are used, but the root is considered the most active part[].
A range of medically active compounds have been identified in the plant including tannins and several alkaloids.
Securine is the main alkaloid present, and as many as ten alkaloids closely related to it have been determined present in the plant[].
The alkaloids, viroallosecurinine, virosecurinine and virosine, have been recorded from the leaves[].
Ethanol and chloroform extracts of the plant have shown significant antimicrobial activities, and moderate antioxidant and free-radical scavenging activities[].
A methanol extract of the dried fruit pulp and the ethanolic root extract have shown significant antifungal activities against Trichytum mentagrophytes and Candida albicans[].
Methanol and water extracts of the leaves have shown strong antimalarial activity, significantly inhibiting the growth of
Plasmodium falciparumin vitro in a dose-dependent manner[].
Bergenin has shown an inhibitory effect on the growth of the bloodstream form of Trypanosoma brucei. It has also
shown significant anti-arrhythmic activity in rats and has good potential for treating cardiac arrhythmias. Bergenin has also shown a significant lipid-lowering and atherogenic index decrease in hyperlipidaemic rats. Bergenin is also
extracted from other plant species; in Asia especially it is used for many pharmacological purposes, several of which are in line with traditional uses of this species in Africa[].
Oral administration of bergenin has shown significant protection against pylorus-ligated and aspirin-induced gastric ulcers in rats and cold restraint stress-induced gastric ulcers in rats and guinea pigs[].
Alcoholic leaf extracts showed significant cytotoxicity in different tumourcell lines in vitro. Virosecurinine was primarily responsible for the cytotoxicity; viroallosecurinine was only cytotoxic to one of the cell lines[].
A root bark extract and a total alkaloid preparation caused a transient fall in arterial blood pressure in dogs. Extracts of roots and root bark had a slightly depressive action on the isolated intestine of rabbits, which rapidly normalized.
The extracts showed weak haemolytic activity. An aqueous root extract showed a slight activity in the oral glucose tolerance test in rabbits, but did not lower blood glucose below fasting levels in either the fed or fasted state.

The root is the most commonly used and most pharmacologically active part of the plant. It is seen as analgesic, astringent, ophthalmic, purgative, sedative and soporific[]. It is used by itself or in conjunction with other plants, often to provide synergistic effect for liver, bile, kidney and urino-genital complaints, diuresis, renal stone, schistosomiasis, rheumatism, venereal diseases, orchitis, dysmenorrhoea, frigidity, sterility, arthritis, etc[]. Water in which the roots have been boiled is taken as a treatment for schistosomiasis, stomach aches, dysmenorrhoea, and is given to nursing mothers whose milk is unsuited for the child, or whose baby is sickly at birth or to mothers who have still-born babies; it is also used for treating infestation of intestinal worms and for infected ears[].
Combined with Anacardium occidentale it is seen as an aphrodisiac and an elixir of longevity[].
The root-sap, combined with fat, is a recognised soothing ointment[].

The powdered charcoal is used as a cicatrizant on wounds[].

All parts of the plant are used in China to treat eczema, rheumatoid arthritis etc[].

The leaves are considered aphrodisiac and laxative[]. They are used to treat fevers, venereal disease and constipation[].
A leaf-macerate is added to baths and applied in massage as a stimulant in the treatment of fatigue and stiffness[].
A leaf-decoction is used in draughts or baths for treating fevers[].
A warm paste made from the leaves is an excellent wound-healer[].

The leaf-sap is used in the treatment of epilepsy and, combined with other plants, is used as a tranquilliser in cases of insanity[].
The leaf-sap, or the leaf mashed into a paste with tobacco, is applied externally to destroy worms in sores[].

A two hour hot water infusion of the whole plant is said to be stimulant when taken as a broth[].
A decoction of the plant is used as a lotion to impart strength[].

The bark is astringent[]. In some areas it is considered too poisonous to use medicinally, whilst in others it is used even in children’s medicine[].

The fruit, mixed with pulses, is eaten to relieve digestive disorders. Women are said to eat the fruit in order to promote fertility[].

Agroforestry Uses:

With its attractive foliage and white waxy berries, the bushy nature of the plant ideally lends itself to use as an ornamental hedge[].
Where growing wild, the plant is seen as an indicator of ground water[].

Other Uses

Twigs are cut and used as toothbrushes[, ].

The bark contains up to 8.9% tannins[, ].
A black dye obtained from the bark is used for dyeing matting[, ].
A black dye obtained from the leaves is used to dye palm-fibres[, ]. It is considered of low quality as it gives
an irregular colour[].
A red dye is obtained by pounding the fruit in a little hot water. The dye can be used as red ink[299. 332].

The wood-ash is used to clean milk-containers[].

A gum is obtained from the stems which has been used for sealing envelopes[, ].

The pounded leaves are used as an insect repellent[].

The tough virgate stems are commonly used to make beds, fishing-stakes, wicker-traps, walking sticks, for part of roof-structures of Fula huts, to reinforce granaries, etc[, ]. They are woven into 'shelves' and also split for use in basketry[, ].

The reddish-yellow wood is fine-textured, close-grained, hard, strong, elastic and is said to be durable[, , ]. The wood, especially from plants in W. Africa, is usually too small to be of much use apart from fuel, but when large enough it is used to make items such as chair-legs and kitchen utensils, or as poles for huts[, ].
The wood is a good fuel and is also used to make charcoal[, , ].

Propagation

Seed -

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