Until about 1980, taxonomists placed a number of species, including this one, under Phyllanthus niruri L. Where the name Phyllanthus niruri has been applied in older literature to African or Asian specimens, usually Phyllanthus amarus is intended, but sometimes also Phyllanthus debilis, Phyllanthus fraternus, Phyllanthus maderaspatensis or Phyllanthus rotundifolius. Specimens of true Phyllanthus niruri have actually never been confirmed from outside the Americas. In pharmacological literature the confusion between Phyllanthus fraternus and Phyllanthus amarus still persists[].

Common Name:

General Information

Phyllanthus amarus is an erect, annual plant growing from 10 - 50cm tall, but usually less than 30cm[, ]. The stem can be branched or unbranched[].
The plant is commonly gathered from the wild for local medicinal use. It is cultivated for medicinal use in some areas, especially India, and is traded commercially[]. There are some named varieties[].

Known Hazards

None known

Botanical References

Range

S. America - all countries; Caribbean - Trinidad to the Bahamas; C. America - Panama to Mexico; S. E. N. America - Florida.

Habitat

A weed in villages, gardens, and cultivated fields[]. Open localities, waste ground, grassy scrub vegetation and dry deciduous forest, usually on humid, sandy soils, at elevations from sea-level up to 1,000 metres[].

Properties

Weed Potential	Yes
Medicinal Rating
Other Uses Rating
Habit	Annual
Height	0.30 m
Cultivation Status	Cultivated, Wild

Cultivation Details

Requires a sunny position. Sandy loam and black soils with a pH of 7.5 - 8 are considered best[].
The plant has explosive seed capsules that propel the seeds some distance from the plant[]. Originally native to tropical America, the plant has spread to become a weed, often invasive, in many areas of the Tropics[]. The plant is reported to be a troublesome weed in pulses, soya bean, groundnut, cereals, sugar cane, cassava, taro, sesame, sunflower and cotton[].

Edible Uses

None known

Medicinal

Phyllanthus amarus is widely used as a medicinal plant and is considered to be a good tonic, diuretic and febrifuge[]. There has been considerable research into the medicinal properties of the plant, much of it supporting the traditional uses.
The plant contains alkaloids, flavonoids and triterpenes. It has shown antimicrobial, antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activity[].
The following chemical constituents have been isolated: lignans (e.g. phyllanthin, hypophyllanthin, phyltetralin, nirtetralin, niranthin), ellagitannins (phyllanthusiin D, amariinic acid, elaeocarpusin, repandusinic acid A and geraniinic acid B), flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids of the quinolizidine type, phenolic compounds and a chroman derivative[].
The alkaloid phyllanthine must not be confused with the lignan phyllanthin.
The leaves were found to contain the highest amounts of phyllanthin (0.7%) as compared to the whole plant: phyllanthin (0.4%), hypophyllanthin (1.2%), gallic acid (0.4%) and ellagic acid (0.2%)[].
Phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin have protective activity against cytotoxicity. However, phyllanthin has also been reported to be toxic to the nervous system and liver[].
Aqueous extracts show potent anticarcinogenic activity against development of different tumour types[]
Fresh plant material and a methanol extract showed strong antioxidant activity in various antioxidant assays. Drying of the plant material caused a significant reduction in antioxidant properties. On the other hand, boiling water extracts exhibited significantly stronger antioxidant potentials even from dried plant material due to greater solubility of compounds, breakdown of cellular constituents as well as hydrolysis of tannins[].
A whole plant extract showed significant radioprotective activity, by decreasing the damage to intestinal cells, decreasing the lipid peroxidation levels, decreasing the percentage of chromosomal aberrations and by elevating the antioxidant enzymes in the intestine, blood and liver[].
Various tests have demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory potential[].
Methanolic extracts of leaves, roots and fruits showed significant concentration-dependent antibacterial activity in vitro against a range of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria; leaf extracts showed the highest activity[].
A chloroform fraction of the aerial parts showed a significant inhibitory effect against the dermatophytic fungus Microsporum gypseum and against the yeast Candida albicans[].
Fresh leaves have been found to contain high levels of Manganese (465 ppm), Copper (21.8 ppm), Zinc (75.1 ppm). The levels of several toxic compounds are high enough to constitute a threat to animals consuming them and the use of the leaves for medicinal purposes should also be monitored[].

A decoction of the whole plant, combined with honey, is used as a cough medicine[]. An infusion is used as a remedy for dysentery and as a blood purifier (bitter tonic) to reduce blood-sugar levels[]. The plant is also used in cases of difficult childbirth, for oedemas and to counter costal and fever pains and sore-throat. A decoction of the whole plant is taken as a remedy for blennorrhoea, oliguria and venereal diseases[, ].
The plant is reduced to a paste and prepared as a vaginal suppository to induce menstruation. This paste is also administered by enema to infants as an antidote to poison[].

The aerial parts of the plant are used in a bitter infusion as a cholagogue, diuretic, febrifuge and stomachic. It has been used as a substitute for quinine[]. It is also used by mothers after childbirth to bring relief to painful wombs and to treat colic[].
The juice extracted from the whole plant is taken orally once a day for 7days to treat Jaundice[].

An infusion of the leaves is used as a treatment for haemorrhoids, either on its own or in combination with citron juice and the powdered fruits of Xylopia aethiopica[].

The sap is taken in draught as a remedy for costal pains, tachycardia, blennorrhoea and female sterility, by ear-instillation for otitis, and by topical application to maturate furuncles and abscesses[]. A cold leaf-infusion is taken to relieve stomach-pains[].

The ripe fruit and seeds are considered vermifugal[].

Agroforestry Uses:

The plant is said to have sand-binding properties[, ].

Other Uses

The leaves, rubbed between the hands, give a lather[].

Chloroform and ethanolic extracts of the aerial parts and roots showed significant larvicidal activity against Anopheles stephensi larvae. An ethanolic root extract possessed significant activity against Tribolium castaneum, a pest of stored grain[].
Norsecurinine, isolated from the aerial parts, showed significant activity against spore germination of the crop fungi Alternaria brassicae, Alternaria solani, Curvularia pennisetti, Erysiphe pisi and Helminthosporium frumentacei under glasshouse conditions[].

Propagation

Seed - requires light to germinate[]. Sow in situ - the small seed is usually mixed with sand[]. Germination is often less than 50%; germination of freshly harvested seeds is slower than that of older seeds[].
Seeds dried to 8% moisture content and treated with turmeric rhizome powder under ambient conditions maintained viability for up to 6 months; untreated seeds stored poorly[].

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